Overview of Russian Imperialism
Russian aggression against neighboring states, such as Ukraine and Georgia, is primarily driven by deep-rooted imperialist traditions rather than solely as reactions to Western actions. Understanding these motivations requires a comprehensive exploration of historical, cultural, and political contexts that signified the evolution of Russian imperialism.
Historical Context
Byzantine Ideology
Byzantine Christianity was replete with a strong religious aspect, characterized by a sense of messianism which significantly influenced the Slavic conversion to Christianity. The Byzantine Empire's fall led to a vacuum in Eastern Christian leadership, which Russia sought to fill. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Russians began to see themselves as heirs to a grand Christian Empire, coining the notion of Russia as the "Third Rome", believing it to be the last bastion of Orthodox Christianity.
Key Factors Defining Russian Imperialism
Russia as the "Third Rome"The concept of Russia as the "Third Rome" emerged after Moscow gained independence from Mongol rule under Ivan III (1462-1505). Inspired by a spiritual connection to the Byzantine Empire, the Russian state adopted notions of divine right and imperial responsibility, asserting its providential role in the world as a Christian empire.Ivan III’s marriage to Sophie Palaeologus, a descendant of the last Byzantine emperor, symbolically linked Russia to the Byzantine heritage, establishing Moscow as a holy city. This belief in spiritual superiority and a messianic role bred paranoia about external threats, which continues to echo in modern Russian politics, fostering a narrative of nationalism and entitlement over neighboring regions as lands to be reclaimed or protected.
Influence of Mongol RuleThe Mongol occupation in the 13th Century left an indelible mark on Russian politics, significantly shifting them from democratic frameworks in the Kievan Rus to autocratic governance. Under Mongol influence, the political structure transformed substantially, with the nobility becoming increasingly subservient to the tsar, and the imposition of heavy taxes and serfdom on the peasantry became institutionalized.The tsar was viewed as a successor to both the Mongol khan and the Byzantine emperor, solidifying an autocratic political environment. This lineage created an entrenched belief in the ruler’s divine right and necessitated a strong, centralized state to maintain order and expand influence over territories.
Geographic ConsiderationsGeography played a crucial role in shaping Russia's political evolution towards autocracy. Unlike Europe's fragmented geography due to mountains, rivers, and smaller territories leading to the rise of distinct nation-states, Russian territory is characterized by vast plains and limited geographical barriers, facilitating the rise of extensive empires.This geographical aspect allowed for centralized power to flourish, as vast expanses could be governed from a singular authority, leading to the dominance of the central government at the expense of regional autonomy. Scholar Azar Gat noted that Russia’s expansive landscape favored imperial designs over the localized governance models seen in Europe.
Modern Implications of Imperialist Views
Contemporary Russian leaders exhibit a persistent imperial mindset, with expansionist policies often justified in overtly imperial terms. Vladimir Putin's rhetoric reflects a nostalgic longing for the Soviet era and the strategic assertion of Russia's influence, viewing it not merely as a communist past but as part of a broader imperial history. This mindset manifests in various forms across Russian foreign policy and domestic narrative, often portraying Russia as a wronged power that must reclaim its rightful sphere of influence.
The imperial project is fortified by a historical narrative that regards Russia as a victim of past betrayals by Western powers, thereby fueling a sense of duty to protect ethnic Russians and Russian speakers beyond its borders, which is often used to justify intervention in neighboring states.
Conclusion
While historical evidence indicates deep imperialist motivations behind Russian actions, it is essential to recognize that despotism and imperialism are not Russia’s inevitable fate. Maxim Gorky articulated a dichotomy within Russian identity: an Eastern fatalism contrasts starkly with Western individualism, highlighting the ongoing internal struggle within Russia itself between authoritarian control and the ideals of personal liberty and democratic governance. This ongoing conflict shapes both their domestic policy and international relations today.
